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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants represent a rich source of antimicrobials and many other drugs. The potentialsof
higher plants as source for new drugs is still largely unexplored. Antibiotic resistance has become a
global concern (Westhet al., 2004). The clinical efficacy of many existing antibiotics is being
threatened by the emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogens (Bandow, 2003). Many
infectiousdiseases have been known to be treated with herbal remedies throughout the history of
mankind. Natural products, either as pure compounds or as standardized plant extracts, provide
unlimited opportunities for new drug leads because of the unmatched availability ofchemical diversity.
There is a continuous and urgent need to discover new antimicrobial compounds with diversechemical
structures and novel mechanisms of action for new and re-emerging infectious diseases (Rojas et al.,
1992). Therefore, researchers are increasingly turning their attention tolocal herbs, looking for new
leads todevelop better drugs against microbial infections (Benkeblia, 2004).
The increasingfailure of chemotherapeutics and antibiotic resistanceexhibited by pathogenic microbial
infectious agents has led to the screening of several medicinal plants for their potential antimicrobial
activity (Kapila, 2005 ;Runyoro et al.,2006). The rising prevalence of antibiotics resistant pathogenic
microorganisms raises the demand for finding new alternative antimicrobial agents. The drugs already
in use to treat infectious diseaseare of concern because drug safety remains an enormous global issue.
Most of the synthetic drugscause side effects and also most of the microbesdeveloped resistant against
the synthetic drugs (Chanda and Rakholiya 2011). To alleviate this problem, antimicrobial compounds
frompotential plants should be explored. These drugs fromplants are less toxic; side effects are scanty
and alsocost effective. They are effective in the treatment ofinfectious diseases while
1
simultaneouslymitigatingmany of the side effects that are often associated withsynthetic antimicrobials
(Harishchandraet al., 2012).
Published studies in medical journals show that coconut in one form or another may provide a wide
range of health benefits. The coconut plant Cocos nucifera (family Arecaceae) is considered as an
important fruit crop in tropical countries. It is commonly available plant with wide variety of
applications in food, drinks, fibers, building materials and various chemicals finding their way into a
huge range of modern day products. Being highly nutritious coconuts have also been studied for
medicinal qualities.
Modern medical science is now confirming the medicinal qualities of Cocos nucifera which are used
for the treatment wide range of infections. Based on the knowledge of the traditional herbs used for the
treatment for local application, coconut husk can be use as a topical antimicrobial. As preliminary
investigation of the use of coconut husk, the antimicrobial activity can be evaluated.
1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The specific objectives are to:
(a) Evaluate the phytochemical and antimicrobial activities of Methalonic extract of young Cocos
nucifera husk on selected pathogenic microorganisms.
(b) Evaluate the antimicrobial activities andyoung Cocos nucifera water on selected pathogenic
microorganisms
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH
Cocos nucifera husk and Cocos nucifera water are traditionally used in the treatment of wide variety of
diseases, it has been used from time immemorial for the treatment of carcinogenic infections. This
study scientifically justifies the use of young Coconut husk and young Coconut water in traditional folk
medicine and to compare their antimicrobial potency with the commercial antibiotics.
2
1.4LITERATURE REVIEW
1.4.1 MEDICINAL PLANTS AS ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT
Medicinal plants have always been considered as a source for healthy life for people. Therapeutical
properties of medical plants are very useful in healing various diseases and the advantage of these
medicinal plants are natural (Kalemba and Kunicka, 2003). In many parts of the world, medicinal plants
have been used for its antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities for hundreds of years (Ali et al.,
1998; Barbour et al., 2004; Yasunakaet al., 2005). Researchers are increasingly turning their attention
to natural products and looking for new leads to develop better drugs against cancer, as well as viral and
microbial infections (Ibrahim, 1997; Towers et al., 2001; Koshy et al., 2009). Several synthetic
antibiotics are employed in the treatment of infections and communicable diseases. The harmful
microorganisms can be controlled with drugs and this has resulted in the emergence of multiple drug
resistant bacteria and it has created alarming clinical situations in the treatment of infections.
In general, bacteria have the genetic ability to transmit and acquire resistance to synthetic drugs which
are utilized as therapeutic agents (Murray, 1992; Madunaguet al., 2001; Koshy et al., 2009;
Senthilkumar and Reetha, 2009) Therefore, actions must be taken to reduce this problem, such as to
minimize the use of antibiotics, develop research of resistance among microorganism and to continue
studies to develop new antibiotic and immune modulating compounds with diverse chemical structures
and novel mechanisms of action, either synthetic or natural to control pathogenic microorganisms
because there has also been an alarming increase in the incidence of new and re-emerging infectious
diseases (Ikenebomeh and Metitiri, 1988; Rojas et al., 2003)
Antimicrobial studies have shown that Gram-negative bacteria show a higher resistance to plant extracts
than Gram-positive bacteria. This may be due to the variation in the cell wall structures of Gram-
positive and Gram-negative bacteria. More specifically, Gram-negative bacteria has an outer membrane
that is composed of high density lipopolysaccharides that serves as a barrier to many environmental
3
substances including antibiotics (Paz et al., 1995; Vlietincket al., 1995; Kudiet al., 1999; Palombo and
Semple, 2001). Although hundreds of plant species have been tested for antimicrobial properties, the
vast majority of have not been adequately evaluated (Onwuliri and Dawang, 2006; Mahesh and Sathish,
2008).
The coconut (Cocos nucifera L. family Arecaceae) is a well distributed fruit tree all around the world,
providing food, especially in the tropical and subtropical regions and for its many uses it is often called
the “tree of life”. There are 12 different crops of nuts under the name of coconut palm (DebMandal and
Mandal, 2011). Cocos nucifera is widely distributed over the Brazilian northeastern coast, where is
known as “Coco-da-Bahia”. Popular medicinal uses (against arthritis and diarrhea) of coconut husk fiber
have been reported (Rinaldi et al., 2009), but the knowledge of its potential benefit or adverse effects in
human beings is still very preliminary.
Coconut, Cocos nucifera, is a tree that is cultivated for its multiple utilities, mainly for its nutritional
and medicinal values. The various products of coconut include tender coconut water,copra, coconut
oil, raw kernel, coconut cake, coconut toddy, coconut shell and wood based products, coconut leaves,
coir pith etc. It’s all parts are used in some way or another in the daily life of the people in the
traditional coconut growing areas. It is the unique source of various natural products for the
development of medicines against various diseases and also for the development of industrial products.
The parts of its fruit like coconut husk and tender coconut water have numerous medicinal properties
such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antiparasitic, antidermatophytic, antioxidant, hypoglycemic,
hepatoprotective, immunostimulant. Coconut water and coconut kernel contain micro minerals and
nutrients, which are essential to human health, and hence coconut is used as food by the peoples in the
globe, mainly in the tropical countries. The coconut palm is, therefore, eulogizedas ‘Kalpavriksha’ (the
all giving tree) in Indian classics. India is the third largest coconut producing country, after Indonesia
and the Philippines, having an area of about 1.78 million hectares under the crop. Annual production is
4
about 7,562 million nuts with an average of 5 295 nuts/hectare (Rinaldi et al., 2009). In India, the four
south Indian states namely Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh account for around
90% of the coconut production in the country (Rinaldi et al., 2009). For thousands of years,
coconutproducts have held a respected and valuable placein Indianfolk medicine. It is believed to be
antiblenorrhagic, antibronchitis, febrifugal, and antigingivitic. In Ayurvedic medicine, the oil, milk,
cream and water of the coconut are all used to treat hair loss, burns and heart problems. In India, the
use of coconut for food, and its applications in the Ayurvedic medicine were documented in Sanskrit 4
000 years ago. Records show that in the United States, coconut oil was one of the major sources of
dietary fats, aside from dairy and animal fats, prior to the advent of the American edible oil
(soybean and corn) industry in the mid-1940s(Dayrit,2005). Virgin coconut oil (VCO) is completely
non-toxic to humans, and is referred to as the “drugstore in a bottle”. In India, the coconut has religious
connotations; it is described as “The fruit of aspiration” and a coconut is offered to the gods and cut at
the start of many new projects. Coconut water is produced by a 5 month old nut that during World War
II, was used in emergencies, and put directly into a patient’s veins. From ancient times the coconut is
used as a very effective remedy for intestinal worms of all kinds. Boiled toddy, known as jaggery, with
lime makes a good cement. Nutmeat of immature coconuts is eaten or extracted cream is used on
various foods.
5
1.4.2COCONUT WATER AS POTENTIAL ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
Coconut water (coconut liquid endosperm), with its many applications, is one of the world’s most
versatile natural product. This refreshing beverage is consumed worldwide as it is nutritious and
beneficial for health. There is increasing scientific evidence that supports the role of coconut water in
health and medicinal applications. Coconut water is traditionally used as a growth supplement in plant
tissue culture/micro propagation. The wide applications of coconut water can be justified by its unique
chemical composition of sugars, vitamins, minerals, amino acids and phytohormones.
Coconut water is a natural liquid that contains many biologically active compounds. These include
numerous antioxidant compounds that have the ability to scavenge free radicals in the body. It also
contains cytokins, a plant chemical which has shown anti-aging and anti-carcinogenic effects. Coconut
water also contains B vitamins, which are water soluble and are required for cellular functions (Jannick
and Paull, 2008). Coconut water contains a variety of inorganic ions such
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