TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title                                                                                                                                        Page

Title page        -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           i

Dedication      -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           ii

Acknowledgement      -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           iii

Table of Contents       -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           iv

List of Tables  -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           vii

Abstract          -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           viii

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction          -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           1

1.2 Statement of the Problem  -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           15

1.3 Purpose of the study         -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           15

1.4 Significance of the study  -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           16

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Theoretical Review           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           17

2.2 Theories of Substance Abuse       -           -           -           -           -           -           -           17

2.2.1 Social learning theory    -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           17

2.2.2 Personality Theory (Cheetham A, Allen NB, Yucel M, Lubman DI, 2010)     -           19

2.2.3 Psycho-Social Theory and Social Cognitive Theory     -           -           -           -           23

2.3 Theories on Self-Motivation          -         -           -           -           -           -           -           24       

2.3.1 Self-Determination Theory (Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (Eds.), 2002) -           -           24

2.3.2 Achievement Motivation Theory (David McClelland 1961)    -           -           -           24

2.3.2 Achievement Motivation Theory (David McClelland 1961)    -           -           -           25

2.4 Theories on Demographic Factors            -           -           -           -           -           -           26

2.4.1 Socio-demographic and socio-economic determinants (Zayats et al)   -           -           26

2.5 Empirical Review -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           27

2.6 Research Hypotheses        -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           30

Operational Definition of Terms         -           -           -           -           -           -           -           30

CHAPTER THREE: METHOD

3.1 Design       -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           32

3.2 Settings     -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           32

3.3 Participants           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           33

3.4 Instruments           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           34

3.5 Procedure  -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           37

3.6 Statistical Analysis            -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           38

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION

5.1 Discussion of findings      -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           42

5.2 Conclusion            -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           43

5.3 Implications and recommendation            -           -           -           -           -           -           44

5.4 Limitations of study         -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           45

5.5 Suggestions for further studies     -           -           -           -           -           -           -           45

References      -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           46

Appendices     -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           48

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: T-test summary table showing differences in self-motivation between

  undergraduates who abuse substances and those who do not abuse

  substances     -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           39

Table 2: Showing multiple linear regression of demographic factors (gender, level of

  study, family type, and hostel location) on self-motivation -           -           -           -           40

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the impact of substance abuse and demographic factors on self motivation among undergraduates of University of Uyo, Uyo.  Akwa Ibom State. It was a survey, utilizing an ex-post facto design. Dual-stage sampling techniques (randomization and purposive) was used in this study to select the faculties and departments respectively. Two hundred and ninety-four (294) undergraduates participated in the study. Their ages ranged from 16 to 33 years with a mean age of 21.01 years. The Simple Screening Instruments for Substance Abuse (SSI SA) developed by the consensus panel of TIP (1994) and the Academic Motivation Scale developed by Vallerand et al (1993) were instruments used in this study. The independent t-test, multi linear regression and one-way ANOVA were statistics employed. The first hypothesis which stated that undergraduates who abuse substances will report lower self motivation than those who do not abuse substances was not confirmed [F (292) = -234; p> 0.05].The second hypothesis which stated that demographic factors (gender, level of study, family type, hostel location, and marital status) will independently and jointly have a significant impact on self motivation was confirmed [F (4,263) = 3.48; p < .05]. The third hypothesis which stated that marital status of the participants will significantly influence their self motivation was confirmed.  Discussion was made drawing strength from literature review; implications of the study were highlighted while limitation and suggestion for further research were stated.

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Motivation and motivational constructs have been accorded a central place in many theoretical approaches to substance abuse and across areas of investigation; substance abuse has been approached in terms of its instrumentality to fulfill different motivations or goals. The most common explanation of substance abuse typically takes the form of a two-sided hedonic hypothesis: Addictive drugs are taken to achieve a pleasant drug “high” ( Everitt & Robbins, 2005; Hyman, Malenka, & Nestler, 2006; Robinson & Berridge, 1993 , 2003 ; Stewart, de Wit, & Eikelboom, 1984 ; Stewart & Wise, 1992 ) and/or to escape an aversive withdrawal “low” or to cope with negative affect ( Baker, Morse, & Sherman, 1987; Baker, Piper, McCarthy, Majeskie, & Fiore, 2004 ; Koob & Le Moal, 2008 ; O’Brien, 1976 ; Solomon, 1977 ; Solomon & Corbit, 1974 ; Wikler, 1948 ). In addition to these basic motivations, substance use behavior has been discussed in terms of its instrumentality to fulfilling heterogeneous motives, such as socializing or fitting in (with a drug used more within a cultural milieu). Accordingly, initiation and maintenance of substance use are explained by individuals’ expectancies of positive outcomes as a result of substance use (Jones, Corbin, & Fromme, 2001; Cooper, Frone, Russell, & Mudar, 1995; Cox & Klinger, 2004; Kuntsche, Knibbe, Gmel, & Engels, 2005; Palfai & Weafer, 2006). Similarly, in behavioral economics, substance abuse and addiction are approached as the result of a “rational” choice justified by instrumentality of drug use to maximization of a desired outcome (e.g., feeling good, not feeling bad, smooth social interaction) and the lack of alternative options or means to these particular outcomes (Becker & Murphy, 1988; Heyman, 2009; Rachlin, 1997).

                                                                                                

Regardless of the perspective taken and the language used, there is little debate about the importance of motivation in understanding substance abuse. However, there is little agreement about the manner in which motivation and goals operate in driving substance abuse (Bevins & Bardo, 2004). Substance abuse researchers have focused predominantly on identifying and classifying specific motivational contents and their corresponding processes and have neglected the general motivational process at the root of all behavior. It is unclear what relevant motivational principles may account for the changes in substance abuse phenomena that occur over time and across situations and for the alternations between episodes of binging and abstinence that constitute the defining aspect of addictive behavior. Whether drawing on sophisticated neural circuitry or economic principles and mathematical functions as explanatory mechanisms, motivational research on substance abuse has been mainly phenomenon- and data-driven rather than theory-driven, and hence it “rests on lists rather than principles,” as Wise, (2004) aptly put it.

This is surprising and unfortunate given the recent advances in basic motivation research, which emphasize the motivational process rather than specific motivational contents and uncover the principles that regulate motivated action in general. These developments remain relatively foreign to substance abuse researchers, with two important consequences.

Today, many students report a lack of motivation and difficulty getting started with their study. It is often because of what they are telling themselves. These are negative or destructive thoughts such as “l never get it done”, “I can always do it later”, “I’m not really a good student”, etc. The internal dialogue we have with ourselves is very influential on our emotions and behaviours.

Concomitantly, use of hard drugs by students in Nigerian higher institutions has become an embarrassing occurrence to parents, schools, government authorities, and the society at large. The constant abuse of substance among this group of students can cause psycho-social problems in society. One may hope that this hateful practice and its associated problems would not lead to the breeding of deranged generation of youths. This fear is not speculative because of what happens to be the frequent and rampant drug crises in many Nigerian educational institutions.

Motivation and interest can also influence the way academic is used and critically evaluated. The contemporary view of motivation also emphasizes the importance of cognitive factor (peter, 1991). Your confidence for success may help you relax, concentrate better and study more effectively. If you think too much for instance about not doing well in the class and fear that you will fail may result to anxiousness and poor performance as well.

Psychologists continue to debate the role of the conscious versus unconscious thought in understanding motivation.

Freud’s legacy to contemporary psychoanalytic theory is the belief that we are largely unaware why we behave the way we do. Environment influences on motivation focus on behavioural concept of incentives as well as social/culture influence. External factor were added to motivation when psychologists developed the concepts of incentives position or negative stimuli or events that motivate behaviour.          

The threat of an intruder is a negative incentive for purchasing a security system for a home. Internal and external factors can work in tandem in motivating behaviour. Considering the social motive of achievement to fully understand achievement, we need to evaluate how parents and children interact, explore how peer compare one another and examine the people we look up to as models of success, along with the standard for achievement in different cultures. Students following this procedure will not likely perceive much stress in their academics. The reason individuals behave the way they do can be classified in a number of ways but one basic distinction stands out above all others that is destruction between internal cause such as the actors personality traits or motives and external cause which are environmental, situational factors such as rewards or task difficulty (Heider, 1958).

Many students report a lack of motivation and difficulty getting started with their study. It is often because of what they are telling themselves. These are negative or destructive thoughts such as “l never get it done”, “I can always do it later”, “I’m not really a good student”, etc. The internal dialogue we have with ourselves is very influential on our emotions and behaviours.

The use of hard drugs by students in Nigerian colleges of education has become an embarrassing occurrence to parents, schools, government authorities, and the society at large. The constant abuse of drugs among this group of students can cause psycho-social problems in society. One may hope that this hateful practice and its associated problems would not lead to the breeding of deranged generation of youths. This fear is not speculative because of what happens to be the frequent and rampant drug crises in many Nigerian educational institutions.

The use of hard drugs by students in Nigerian colleges of education has become an embarrassing occurrence to parents, schools, government authorities, and the society at large. The constant abuse of drugs among this group of students can cause psycho-social problems in society. One may hope that this hateful practice and its associated problems would not lead to the breeding of deranged generation of youths. This fear is not speculative because of what happens to be the frequent and rampant drug crises in many Nigerian educational institutions.

According to DSM IV substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern of substance use manifested by recurrent and significant adverse consequences related to the repeated use in situations in which it is physically hazardous, multiple legal problems, and recurrent social and interpersonal problems. The individual may repeatedly demonstrate intoxication or other substance-related symptoms when expected to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home (Criterion Al). There may be repeated absences or poor work performance related to recurrent hangovers. A student might have substance-related absences, suspensions, or expulsions from school. While intoxicated, the individual may neglect children or household duties. The person may repeatedly be intoxicated in situations that are physically hazardous (e.g., while driving a car, operating machinery, or engaging in risky recreational behavior such as swimming or rock climbing) (Criterion A2). There may be recurrent substance-related legal problems (e.g., arrests for disorderly conduct, assault and battery, driving under the influence) (Criterion A3). The person may continue to use the substance despite a history of undesirable persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal consequences (e.g., marital difficulties or divorce, verbal or physical fights). Adolescence is a period of changeover from childhood to adulthood and this critical developmental period is marked by several physical, psychological and social changes.

Merriam-Webster Unabridged dictionary defined substance abuse as the excessive use of a drug (such as alcohol, narcotics, or cocaine) without medical justification.

Substance Abuse, also known as drug abuse, is a patterned use of a drug in which the user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to themselves or others, and is a form of substance-related disorder. Widely differing definitions of drug abuse are used in public health, medical and criminal justice contexts. In some cases criminal or anti-social behavior occurs when the person is under the influence of a drug, and long term personality changes in individuals may occur as well. In addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, use of some drugs may also lead to criminal penalties, although these vary widely depending on the local jurisdiction. Drugs most often associated with this term include: alcohol, cannabis, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methaqualone, opioids and some substituted amphetamines . The exact cause of substance abuse is not clear, with the two predominant theories being: either a genetic disposition which is learned from others, or a habit which if addiction develops, manifests itself as a chronic debilitating disease. In 2010 about 5% of people (230 million) used an illicit substance.  Of these 27 million have high-risk drug use otherwise known as recurrent drug use causing harm to their health, psychological problems, or social problems that put them at risk of those dangers.

Adolescents are a segment of population with age range between 14-25years. Most students in colleges of education in Nigeria are usually within the adolescent age range of 14-25 years (Olugbenga-Bello; Adebinpe; Abodurin, 2009). Adolescence is a time of experimentation, exploration, curiosity and identity search. Part of such a quest involves some risk-taking, including the use and abuse of psychoactive substances, which are the drugs that apply their major effects on the brain resulting in sedation, encouragement or change in mood of an individual. Adolescents are faced with the huge task of establishing a sense of identity. The new cognitive skills of maturing adolescents give them the ability to reflect on who they are and what makes them unique. Identity is made up of two components, self-concept and self-esteem (American Psychological Association, 2002). Self-concept is a set of beliefs about oneself, including attributes, roles, goals, interests, values, religious and political beliefs, while self-esteem is how one feels about one’s self-concept. All of the developmental changes that adolescents experience prepare them to experiment with new behaviours. This experimentation results in risk-taking, which is a normal part of adolescent development (Sue, et al, 2009). Engaging in risk-taking behaviour helps adolescents to shape their identities, try out their new decision-making skills and gain peer acceptance and respect (Ponton, 2009).

Unfortunately, some of the risk that adolescents take may pose a real threat to their health and well being. These include pregnancy, cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol consumption and drug abuse. Odejide (2000) posited that drug is said to be abused when its use is not pharmacologically necessary especially when used in the face of legal prohibition or when a socially acceptable beverage is used excessively. Sambo, (2008) viewed that chronic use of substances can cause serious and sometimes irreversible damage to adolescent’s physical and psychological development.

University study is a period when students experience independence and freedom from direct adult and family supervision, self-decision-making, and intense academic pressures, share living quarters with strangers, form new social groups, balance social engagements with academic and other life responsibilities, and may be exposed to normative values valued by the youth culture that differ from parental values. These perceived norms motivate the youth to indulge in unhealthy behaviors such as smoking and alcohol and drug use. University students make the transition from the restricted life monitored by parents to a more self-directed life influenced by the university environment. Hence, the risk of substance use is increased in university environments.

Recent trends indicate that the use and abuse of substances have dramatically increased worldwide particularly in developing countries. Several studies have indicated that substance use is common among students and is becoming increasingly widespread in many African countries. African studies have indicated that tobacco, alcohol, cannabis, inhalants, tranquilizers, heroin, and cocaine are common in secondary schools and some higher educational institutions. Both alcohol and tobacco are regarded as “gateway drugs” to other substances.

Motivation and interest can also influence the way academic is used and critically evaluated. The contemporary view of motivation also emphasizes the importance of cognitive factor (peter, 1991). Your confidence for success may help you relax, concentrate better and study more effectively. If you think too much for instance about not doing well in the class and fear that you will fail may result to anxiousness and poor performance as well.

Psychologists continue to debate the role of the conscious versus unconscious thought in understanding motivation.

Freud’s legacy to contemporary psychoanalytic theory is the belief that we are largely unaware why we behave the way we do. Environment influences on motivation focus on behavioural concept of incentives as well as social/culture influence. External factor were added to motivation when psychologists developed the concepts of incentives position or negative stimuli or events that motivate behaviour.

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