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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and
reactive nitrogen species (RON) are free radicals, which derived either
from normal metabolic processes or from external sources (Magalhaes,
2006). These species are essential to energy supply, detoxification,
chemical signalling and immune function (Dimitrios, 2006). However,
overproduction of these free radical may lead to damage to valuable
biomolecules such as DNA, lipids and proteins.
These free
radicals are often associated with the oxidation in food and biological
systems which will cause oxidative rancidity in foods and the
development of several human diseases such as neurological degeneration,
diabetes and certain types of cancer (Magalhaes, 2006).
An
antioxidant is any substance which is capable of delaying, preventing
the oxidative damage of lipids, protein and nucleic acids by reactive
oxygen species, which include reactive free radicals such as superoxide,
hydroxyl, peroxyl, alkoxyl and non-radicals such as hydrogen peroxide
and hypochlorous (Lim et al., 2007).
Thus, antioxidants have
gained numerous attention in the past few years, especially within the
food, biological and agrochemical fields. There is increasing evidence
that the consumption of vegetables and fruits is associated with a
reduced risk of degenerative disease such as cancer, cardiovascular
disease and cataracts (Chinnici et al., 2004). This association is often
attributed to the natural antioxidant present in fruits and vegetables,
such as vitamin C and E, carotenoids, phenolic acids and flavonoids,
which prevent free radical damage (Silva et al., 2004).
Epidemiological
studies have established a positive correlation between the intake of
fruits and vegetables and prevention of diseases like atherosclerosis,
cancer, diabetes, arthritis and also ageing (Kaur and Kapoor, 2001).
Annona
muricata L. (A. muricata) is one of the tropical fruits that
demonstrate antioxidant properties. This plant contains annonaceous
acetogenins in the twigs, unripe fruit, seeds, roots, and bark tissues,
which display antitumor, pesticidal, antimalarial, anthelmintic,
piscicidal, antiviral, and antimicrobial effects, thus suggesting many
potentially useful applications. Ripe A. muricata pulp extract contains
three prominent acetogenins: asimicin, bullatacin, and bullatalicin.
Previous
research on A. muricata was focused on the leaves, seeds and roots for
pharmaceutical purposes (Gleeve et al., 1997; Jaramillo et al., 2000;
Onimawo, 2002). Little attention has been paid to the study of the pulp
and peel of A. muricata fruit. This study was therefore conducted to
compare the antioxidant properties, phyto-constituents, proximate and
mineral compositions of the peel and pulp of A. muricata.
Persea
americana Mill (Luraceae) is one of the 150 varieties of avocado pear.
The tree is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas (Lu et
al., 2005). The seed of P. americana (avocado seed) has diverse
application in ethno–medicine, ranging from treatment for diarrhea,
dysentery, toothache, intestinal parasites, skin treatment and
beautification.
The avocado seed oil has several health benefit
e.g. for controlling human weight (especially used for obese for weight
loss) (Lopez et al., 1996; Roger, 1999). P. americana leaves have been
reported to have or possess anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities
(Adeyemi et al., 2002). The edible part (fruit) is very popular in
vegetarian cuisine, making a substitute for meat in sandwiches and
salads, because of its high fat content and high in valuable,
health-promoting fats (Lu et al., 2005) . The fruit is not sweet but
fatty, almost distinctly, yet subtly flavoured, and of smooth, almost
creamy texture. Avocado fruits in many countries such as Mexico, Brazil,
South Africa and India are frequently used for milkshakes and
occasionally added to ice-cream (Zeldes, 2010).
While several
works had been reported on the chemical characterization of
phyto-constituents of P. americana fruit, there is still limited
information on its potential use in the management/prevention of
degenerative diseases associated with oxidative stress. Hence, the
objective of this study is to investigate the anti-oxidative properties
and inhibitory effect of phenolic extracts of the leaves and fruit parts
of P. americana on Fe2+ induced lipid oxidation.
The plant Cola
lepidota, also known as monkey cola in West Cameroons, Duala, mbwid;
oji ochicha (cockroach cola) or achicha (Iwu, 1993) amongst the Ibo
speaking people of Nigeria, belongs to the sterculiaceae family. It
grows wild and sometimes cultivated in the tropics especially
distributed in lower Guinea, Gabon, Western Cameroon and Eastern
Nigeria. The phyto-constituents found in the seed of Cola lepidota
include falvones; glycosides, saponins, steroids (Burkill, 1985). The
seed has been used as febrifuges, for pulmonary disorders, and as an
anticancer (Engel et al., 2011). Until now, there has not been a report
on the antioxidant activity of any part of Cola lepidota. As part of an
ongoing biological evaluation of medicinal plants for their therapeutic
uses, the current study was carried out to determine the free radical
scavenging activity viz avis the antioxidant activity.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY:
Oxidation
of biological molecules has been postulated to induce a variety of
pathological events such as diabetes, pancreatitis and ageing (Finkel
and Holbrook, 2000).
Evidence has shown that these damaging
events are caused by free radicals (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 1993).
Free radicals are unstable species because they have unpaired electron
pairing with biological macromolecules. It is well established that free
radicals are associated with process that leads to cell degeneration,
especially in organs such as brain and pancreas (Shulman et al., 2004).
Unchecked
activities of ROS had been linked to health disorders such as diabetes
mellitus, hypertension, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, gastric
ulcers, reperfusion, arthritis and inflammatory diseases (Halliwell,
1989; Vajragupta et al., 2000). In the pancreas, Fe accumulates in
acinar cells and in the islets of Langerhans, thereby resulting in the
destruction of β-cells associated with diabetes mellitus (Shah and
Fonseca, 2011). High levels of both Cu and Fe, with low levels of Zn and
Mn play a crucial role in the progression of several degenerative
diseases (Johnson, 2001).
Although Fe is necessary
physiologically as components of many enzymes and proteins, free Fe in
the cytosol and mitochondria could cause considerable oxidative damage
by acting catalytically in the production of ROS which have the
potential to damage cellular lipids, nucleic acids, proteins and
carbohydrate resulting in wide-ranging impairment in cellular function
and integrity (Britton et al., 2002).
ROS can directly attack the
polyunsaturated fatty acids of the cell membranes and induce lipid
peroxidation. Malondialdehyde (MDA) is the end product of lipid
peroxidation, which is a process where reactive oxygen species (ROS)
degrade polyunsaturated fatty acids. This compound is a reactive
aldehyde and is one of the many reactive electrophile species that cause
toxic stress in cells and form advanced glycation end-products. The
production of this aldehyde is used as a biomarker to measure the level
of oxidative stress in an organism (Murray et al., 2000). However, the
most likely and practical way to fight degenerative diseases is to
improve body antioxidant status, which could be achieved by higher
consumption of fruits and vegetables. Foods of plant origin usually
contain natural antioxidants such as phenolic compounds that can
scavenge free radicals (Sun et al., 2002; Alia et al., 2003; Oboh and
Akindahunsi, 2004; Oboh, 2005). Medicinal plant have continued to
attract attention in the global search for effective methods of using
plants’ parts (e.g. seeds, stems, leaves, roots and bark etc) for the
treatment of many diseases affecting humans (Sofowora, 1993). Many
important drugs used in medicine today are directly or indirectly
derived from plants due to its bioactive constituents such as;
alkaloids, steroids, tannins e.t.c (Cordeiro and Oniyangi, 1998).
In
recent years, secondary plant metabolites previously with unknown
pharmacological activities have been extensively investigated as sources
of medicinal agents (Krishnaraju et al., 2005). Phenolic compounds are
an important group of secondary metabolites, which are synthesized by
plants because of plant adaptation to biotic and a biotic stress
condition such as infection, water stress, and cold stress (Oboh and
Rocha 2007).
In recent years, phenolic compounds have attracted
the interest of researchers because of their antioxidants capacity; they
can protect the human body from free radicals, whose formation is
associated with the normal natural metabolism of aerobic cells. The
antiradical activity of flavonoids and phenols is principally based on
the structural relationship between different parts of their chemical
structure (Rice-Evans et al., 1996).
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM:
Reactive
oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RON) are free
radicals, which derived either from normal metabolic processes or from
external sources (Magalhaes, 2006). These species are essential to
energy supply, detoxification, chemical signalling and immune function
(Dimitrios, 2006). However, over production of these free radical may
lead to damage to valuable biomolecules such as DNA, lipids and
proteins. These free radicals are often associated with the oxidation in
food and biological systems which will cause oxidative rancidity in
foods and the development of several human diseases such as neurological
degeneration, diabetes and certain types of cancer. Discovery of this
problem initiated the research of this project topic by the researcher.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY:
The following forms the objective of this study;
Identifications
of the free radical that results from either normal metabolic process
or from external source affect human health adversely
To assist in creating awareness over the dangers associated with excessive production of these free radicals.
Prove practically how these medical effects can be suppressed in the laboratory.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:
It
is the belief of the writer that at the end of this research, the
researcher will has been able to portrait the disadvantages of over
production of free radicals which have been proved to cause oxidative
rancidity in foods and the development of several human diseases such as
neurological degeneration, diabetes and certain types of cancer.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY:
The
research work only covers the inhibitory effect of black pear, sour sop
and monkey seed during lipid oxidation. The practical work was carried
out using the fruit part of the fruits to ascertain whether the extracts
of the fruits can be suppressed as to avert the adverse human effect.
LIMITATION OF THE STUDY:
The
researcher encountered several difficulties during the time of carrying
out this research work. The limitation ranges from time constraints
which the researcher faced in trying to combine carrying out the
research work and preparing for exams. Accessing relevant documents on
road construction delay documentation wasn’t easy as no company was
willing to showcase their flaws. Financing the research was another
problem since the research is still a student.
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